KebudayaanNagarakretagama menyebutk

Kebudayaan
Nagarakretagama menyebutkan budaya keraton yang adiluhung dan anggun, dengan cita rasa seni dan sastra yang halus, serta sistem ritual keagamaan yang rumit. Peristiwa utama dalam kalender tata negara digelar tiap hari pertama bulan Caitra (Maret-April) ketika semua utusan dari semua wilayah taklukan Majapahit datang ke istana untuk membayar upeti atau pajak. Kawasan Majapahit secara sederhana terbagi dalam tiga jenis: keraton termasuk kawasan ibu kota dan sekitarnya; wilayah-wilayah di Jawa Timur dan Bali yang secara langsung dikepalai oleh pejabat yang ditunjuk langsung oleh raja; serta wilayah-wilayah taklukan di kepulauan Nusantara yang menikmati otonomi luas.[32]
Ibu kota Majapahit di Trowulan merupakan kota besar dan terkenal dengan perayaan besar keagamaan yang diselenggarakan setiap tahun. Agama Buddha, Siwa, dan Waisnawa (pemuja Wisnu) dipeluk oleh penduduk Majapahit, dan raja dianggap sekaligus titisan Buddha, Siwa, maupun Wisnu. Nagarakertagama sama sekali tidak menyinggung tentang Islam, akan tetapi sangat mungkin terdapat beberapa pegawai atau abdi istana muslim saat itu.[2]
Walaupun batu bata telah digunakan dalam candi pada masa sebelumnya, arsitek Majapahitlah yang paling ahli menggunakannya.[33] Candi-candi Majapahit berkualitas baik secara geometris dengan memanfaatkan getah tumbuhan merambat dan gula merah sebagai perekat batu bata. Contoh candi Majapahit yang masih dapat ditemui sekarang adalah Candi Tikus dan Gapura Bajang Ratu di Trowulan, Mojokerto. Beberapa elemen arsitektur berasal dari masa Majapahit, antara lain gerbang terbelah candi bentar, gapura paduraksa (kori agung) beratap tinggi, dan pendopo berdasar struktur bata. Gaya bangunan seperti ini masih dapat ditemukan dalam arsitektur Jawa dan Bali.
Catatan yang berasal dari sumber Italia mengenai Jawa pada era Majapahit didapatkan dari catatan perjalanan Mattiussi, seorang pendeta Ordo Fransiskan dalam bukunya: "Perjalanan Pendeta Odorico da Pordenone". Ia mengunjungi beberapa tempat di Nusantara: Sumatera, Jawa, dan Banjarmasin di Kalimantan. Ia dikirim Paus untuk menjalankan misi Katolik di Asia Tengah. Pada 1318 ia berangkat dari Padua, menyeberangi Laut Hitam dan menembus Persia, terus hingga mencapai Kolkata, Madras, dan Srilanka. Lalu menuju kepulauan Nikobar hingga mencapai Sumatera, lalu mengunjungi Jawa dan Banjarmasin. Ia kembali ke Italia melalui jalan darat lewat Vietnam, China, terus mengikuti Jalur Sutra menuju Eropa pada 1330.
Di buku ini ia menyebut kunjungannya di Jawa tanpa menjelaskan lebih rinci nama tempat yang ia kunjungi. Disebutkan raja Jawa menguasai tujuh raja bawahan. Disebutkan juga di pulau ini terdapat banyak cengkeh, kemukus, pala, dan berbagai rempah-rempah lainnya. Ia menyebutkan istana raja Jawa sangat mewah dan mengagumkan, penuh bersepuh emas dan perak. Ia juga menyebutkan raja Mongol beberapa kali berusaha menyerang Jawa, tetapi selalu gagal dan berhasil diusir kembali. Kerajaan Jawa yang disebutkan di sini tak lain adalah Majapahit yang dikunjungi pada suatu waktu dalam kurun 1318-1330 pada masa pemerintahan Jayanegara.
Ekonomi
Majapahit merupakan negara agraris dan sekaligus negara perdagangan.[21] Pajak dan denda dibayarkan dalam uang tunai. Ekonomi Jawa telah sebagian mengenal mata uang sejak abad ke-8 pada masa kerajaan Medang yang menggunakan butiran dan keping uang emas dan perak. Sekitar tahun 1300, pada masa pemerintahan raja pertama Majapahit, sebuah perubahan moneter penting terjadi: keping uang dalam negeri diganti dengan uang "kepeng" yaitu keping uang tembaga impor dari China. Pada November 2008 sekitar 10.388 keping koin China kuno seberat sekitar 40 kilogram digali dari halaman belakang seorang penduduk di Sidoarjo. Badan Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala (BP3) Jawa Timur memastikan bahwa koin tersebut berasal dari era Majapahit.[35] Alasan penggunaan uang logam atau koin asing ini tidak disebutkan dalam catatan sejarah, akan tetapi kebanyakan ahli menduga bahwa dengan semakin kompleksnya ekonomi Jawa, maka diperlukan uang pecahan kecil atau uang receh dalam sistem mata uang Majapahit agar dapat digunakan dalam aktivitas ekonomi sehari-hari di pasar Majapahit. Peran ini tidak cocok dan tidak dapat dipenuhi oleh uang emas dan perak yang mahal.[32]
Beberapa gambaran mengenai skala ekonomi dalam negeri Jawa saat itu dikumpulkan dari berbagai data dan prasasti. Prasasti Canggu yang berangka tahun 1358 menyebutkan sebanyak 78 titik perlintasan berupa tempat perahu penyeberangan di dalam negeri (mandala Jawa).[32] Prasasti dari masa Majapahit menyebutkan berbagai macam pekerjaan dan spesialisasi karier, mulai dari pengrajin emas dan perak, hingga penjual minuman, dan jagal atau tukang daging. Meskipun banyak di antara pekerjaan-pekerjaan ini sudah ada sejak zaman sebelumnya, namun proporsi populasi yang mencari pendapatan dan bermata pencarian di luar pertanian semakin meningkat pada era Majapahit.
Menurut catatan Wang Ta-Yuan, pedagang Tiongkok, komoditas ekspor Jawa pada saat itu ialah lada, garam, kain, dan burung kakak tua, sedangkan komoditas impornya adalah mutiara, emas, perak, sutra, barang keramik, dan barang dari besi. Mata uangnya dibuat dari campuran perak, timah putih, timah hitam, dan tembaga.[36] Selain itu, catatan Odorico da Pordenone, biarawan Katolik Roma dari Italia yang mengunjungi Jawa pada tahun 1321, menyebutkan bahwa istana raja Jawa penuh dengan perhiasan emas, perak, dan permata.[37]
Kemakmuran Majapahit diduga karena dua faktor. Faktor pertama; lembah sungai Brantas dan Bengawan Solo di dataran rendah Jawa Timur utara sangat cocok untuk pertanian padi. Pada masa jayanya Majapahit membangun berbagai infrastruktur irigasi, sebagian dengan dukungan pemerintah. Faktor kedua; pelabuhan-pelabuhan Majapahit di pantai utara Jawa mungkin sekali berperan penting sebagai pelabuhan pangkalan untuk mendapatkan komoditas rempah-rempah Maluku. Pajak yang dikenakan pada komoditas rempah-rempah yang melewati Jawa merupakan sumber pemasukan penting bagi Majapahit.[32]
Nagarakretagama menyebutkan bahwa kemashuran penguasa Wilwatikta telah menarik banyak pedagang asing, di antaranya pedagang dari India, Khmer, Siam, dan China. Pajak khusus dikenakan pada orang asing terutama yang menetap semi-permanen di Jawa dan melakukan pekerjaan selain perdagangan internasional. Majapahit memiliki pejabat sendiri untuk mengurusi pedagang dari India dan Tiongkok yang menetap di ibu kota kerajaan maupun berbagai tempat lain di wilayah Majapahit di Jawa.
Struktur pemerintahan
Majapahit memiliki struktur pemerintahan dan susunan birokrasi yang teratur pada masa pemerintahan Hayam Wuruk, dan tampaknya struktur dan birokrasi tersebut tidak banyak berubah selama perkembangan sejarahnya.[39] Raja dianggap sebagai penjelmaan dewa di dunia dan ia memegang otoritas politik tertinggi.

Hasil (Inggris) 1:

CultureNagarakretagama mention their Royal culture and graceful, with a taste of the fine arts and literature, as well as a complex system of religious rituals. The major event in the calendar of the country held each first day of the month of Caitra (March-April) when all the representatives from all the conquered territory of Majapahit came to the Palace to pay tribute or taxes. Majapahit area simply divided into three types: palaces including the capital and the surrounding area; areas in East Java and Bali which were directly headed by officials appointed by the King; as well as the conquered territories in the archipelago that enjoy broad autonomy. [32]The capital of Majapahit in Trowulan is a large city and is famous for its large religious celebration held each year. Buddhism, Shiva, and Vaishnava (devotees of Vishnu) adopted by the inhabitants of Majapahit, and the King considered at once practiced Buddhism, Shiva, and Vishnu. Nagarakertagama is not at all offensive about Islam, but it is very likely there are some muslim courtiers or servants at that time. [2]Walaupun batu bata telah digunakan dalam candi pada masa sebelumnya, arsitek Majapahitlah yang paling ahli menggunakannya.[33] Candi-candi Majapahit berkualitas baik secara geometris dengan memanfaatkan getah tumbuhan merambat dan gula merah sebagai perekat batu bata. Contoh candi Majapahit yang masih dapat ditemui sekarang adalah Candi Tikus dan Gapura Bajang Ratu di Trowulan, Mojokerto. Beberapa elemen arsitektur berasal dari masa Majapahit, antara lain gerbang terbelah candi bentar, gapura paduraksa (kori agung) beratap tinggi, dan pendopo berdasar struktur bata. Gaya bangunan seperti ini masih dapat ditemukan dalam arsitektur Jawa dan Bali.Catatan yang berasal dari sumber Italia mengenai Jawa pada era Majapahit didapatkan dari catatan perjalanan Mattiussi, seorang pendeta Ordo Fransiskan dalam bukunya: "Perjalanan Pendeta Odorico da Pordenone". Ia mengunjungi beberapa tempat di Nusantara: Sumatera, Jawa, dan Banjarmasin di Kalimantan. Ia dikirim Paus untuk menjalankan misi Katolik di Asia Tengah. Pada 1318 ia berangkat dari Padua, menyeberangi Laut Hitam dan menembus Persia, terus hingga mencapai Kolkata, Madras, dan Srilanka. Lalu menuju kepulauan Nikobar hingga mencapai Sumatera, lalu mengunjungi Jawa dan Banjarmasin. Ia kembali ke Italia melalui jalan darat lewat Vietnam, China, terus mengikuti Jalur Sutra menuju Eropa pada 1330.In this book he mentions he visited Java without explaining in more detail the places he visited. The King mentioned Java mastering the seven Kings of subordinates. It is mentioned also in this island there are a lot of clove, cubeb, nutmeg, and a variety of other spices. He mentioned the King of Java is very luxurious and wonderful, full of gilded with gold and silver. He also mentioned the Mongol King attempted to attack several times, but always failed and successfully driven back. Of Javanese Kingdom mentioned here is Majapahit visited at one time in the 1318-1330 during the reign of Jayanegara.EconomyMajapahit was an agricultural country and the country's trade. [21] the taxes and fines paid in cash. Javanese economy had been partly know the currency since the 8th century during the reign of Medang Kingdom which use the granules and pieces of gold and silver. Around the year 1300, during the reign of the first King of Majapahit, an important monetary change occurred: pieces of the Interior was replaced with money "kepeng" i.e. pieces of copper imports from China. In November 2008 about 10.388 pieces of ancient China coins weighing about 40 kg were even unearthed from the backyard of a resident in Sidoarjo. Ancient Relics Conservation Agency (BP3) of East Java, make sure that the coins were from Majapahit era. [35] the reason for using foreign currency is not mentioned in the historical records, but most scholars suspect that the increasing complexity of Javanese economy and then the requisite money small fractions or dime Majapahit currency system to be used in everyday market transactions. This role is not suitable and cannot be met by the gold and silver are expensive. [32]Some reflection of economies of scale in the land of the Javanese collected from a variety of data and the inscription. Canggu inscriptions dated 1358 mentions 78 as much as a point of passage for boats crossing place form within the country (mandala Java). [32] the Majapahit inscriptions mention a variety of occupational specialities, ranging from gold and silver Smiths to drink vendors, and butchers. Although many of these jobs are already there since the days before, but the proportion of the population who seek income and cutting edge search outside agriculture has increased during the Majapahit.According to Wang Ta-Yuan, China merchants, commodity export Java at that time was the pepper, salt, cloth, and old brother bird, while commodities imports were pearls, gold, silver, silk, ceramic items, and items from iron. Its currency is made from a mixture of silver, Tin, lead, and copper. [36] in addition, the record of odoric of Pordenone, a Roman Catholic monk from Italy who visited Java in 1321, mentions that the King of Java is full of gold, silver, and jewels. [37]Prosperity of Majapahit, allegedly because of two factors. The first factor; Brantas River Valley and the Bengawan Solo River in the lowlands of Northern East Java is well-suited for farming rice. At the time of Majapahit's Prime building various irrigation infrastructure, partly with the support of the Government. The second factor; Majapahit's ports on the northern coast of Java, probably plays an important role as a port base to get Moluccan spices commodities. Taxes levied on commodity spices passed through Java is a source of important income for Majapahit. [32]The nagarakertagama States that the kemashuran ruler Wilwatikta has attracted many foreign merchants, of whom traders from India, Khmer, Siam, and China. A special tax imposed on foreigners who settled mainly semi-permanent in Java and do work other than international trade. Majapahit had its own officials to supervise the traders from India and China who settled in the capital as well as various other places in the region of Majapahit in Java.Structure of GovernmentMajapahit had a structure of Government and bureaucratic arrangement that regularly during the reign of Hayam Wuruk, and apparently the bureaucratic structure and has not changed much during its development. [39] the King is regarded as the incarnation of God in the world and he held the highest political authority.

Hasil (Inggris) 2:

Culture
Nagarakretagama mention the valuable cultural palace and graceful, with the taste of fine arts and literature, as well as an elaborate system of religious rituals. The main event in the calendar of state administration held every first day of the month Caitra (March-April) when all the delegates from all the territories conquered Majapahit came to the palace to pay tribute or taxes. Majapahit region is simply divided into three types: the palace including the capital and the surrounding region; regions in East Java and Bali that are directly headed by officials appointed directly by the king; as well as the territories conquered in the archipelago which enjoy broad autonomy. [32]
The capital of Majapahit in Trowulan is a big city and is renowned for the religious celebrations are held every year. Buddhism, Shiva and Vaishnava (devotee of Vishnu) is embraced by residents of Majapahit, and the king considered once the incarnation of Buddha, Shiva, or Vishnu. Nagarakertagama absolutely no mention of Islam, but very likely there are several employee or servant of the palace Muslims at that time. [2]
Although the bricks have been used in the temple in the past, architects Majapahitlah most experts use. [33] The temples Majapahit good quality geometrically by utilizing the sap of vines and brown sugar as an adhesive bricks. Examples of Majapahit temple can still be seen today is the Rat Temple and the gate Bajang Queen in Trowulan. Some architectural elements dating from the Majapahit, among other gate of the temple was torn in a moment, gate paduraksa (kori agung) high-roofed, and a pavilion based on a brick structure. Style building like this can still be found in the architecture of Java and Bali.
Note that come from Italy about Java in the Majapahit era of travel records obtained Mattiussi, a priest of the Franciscan Order in his book: "Journey Pastor Odorico da Pordenone". He visited several places in the archipelago: Sumatra, Java, and Banjarmasin in Kalimantan. He was sent pope for Catholic missions in Central Asia. In 1318 he set off from Padua, across the Black Sea and the Persian penetrated, continue until reaching Calcutta, Madras, and Sri Lanka. Then towards the Nicobar archipelago to reach Sumatra, last visited Java and Banjarmasin. He returned to Italy by road via Vietnam, China, continue to follow the Silk Road to Europe in 1330.
In this book he mentions his visit in Java without explaining in more detail the name of the places he visited. Mentioned Javanese king master seven kings subordinate. Also mentioned in this island there are a lot of clove, kemukus, nutmeg, and various other spices. He mentioned the Javanese royal palace very luxurious and amazing, full of gilded silver. He also mentions the king of the Mongols several times attempted to attack Java, but failed and were repulsed. Javanese kingdoms mentioned here is none other than Majapahit visited at some time in the period 1318-1330 during the reign of Jayanegara.
Economic
Majapahit is an agricultural country and at the same time trading countries. [21] Taxes and penalties paid in cash. Java economy has been partly familiar currency since the 8th century in the kingdom Medang that use grains and pieces of gold and silver. Around the year 1300, during the reign of the first king of Majapahit, an important monetary changes occur: domestic coins replaced with money "kepeng" ie coins copper imports from China. In November 2008 about 10 388 pieces of ancient Chinese coins weighing about 40 kilograms unearthed from the backyard of a resident in Sidoarjo. Agency for Preservation of Archaeological Heritage (BP3) East Java ensures that the coin comes from the Majapahit era. [35] The reason for the use of coins or foreign coins is not mentioned in the historical record, but most experts suspect that with the increasing complexity of the economy of Java, it needs money a small fraction or a dime in the Majapahit currency system to be used in the day-to-day economic activities in the market Majapahit. This role is not suitable and can not be met by gold and silver are expensive. [32]
Some description of the economies of scale in the country at that time Java is collected from a variety of data and inscriptions. Inscription Canggu are framed in 1358 said as many as 78 crossing points in the form of a boat crossing in the country (mandala Java). [32] The inscription of the Majapahit period mention a wide variety of jobs and specialties, ranging from artisan gold and silver, to vending, and slaughterhouse or butcher. Although many of these jobs has been around since the days before, but the proportion of the population who are looking for income and eyed the search outside of agriculture is increasing in the Majapahit era.
According to Wang Ta-Yuan, trader China, export commodities Java at that time was pepper , salt, cloth, and a parrot, while imports of commodities are pearl, gold, silver, silk, ceramics, and articles of iron. Its currency is made ​​of a mixture of silver, tin, lead, and copper. [36] In addition, note Odorico da Pordenone, monk Roman Catholics from Italy who visited Java in 1321, states that the king's palace Java full of gold jewelry, silver and jewels. [37]
Prosperity Majapahit allegedly due to two factors. The first factor; Brantas river valley and the Solo River in East Java northern lowlands ideal for rice farming. In the heyday of Majapahit build irrigation infrastructure, in part with government support. The second factor; Majapahit's ports on the north coast of Java is likely to play an important role as a base port to receive commodities Maluku spice. Taxes imposed on commodities spices passed through Java is an important source of income for Majapahit. [32]
Nagarakretagama Wilwatikta authorities mentioned that fame has attracted many foreign traders, including traders from India, Khmer, Siam, and China. Special tax imposed on foreigners who settled mainly semi-permanent in Java and do the job in addition to international trade. Majapahit has officials alone to deal with traders from India and China are settled in the capital of the kingdom as well as various other places in the region of Majapahit in Java.
The structure of government
Majapahit has a government structure and composition of bureaucracy regularly during the reign of Hayam Wuruk, and it seems the structure and the bureaucracy not much changed during the development of its history. [39] The king is regarded as the incarnation of the god in the world and it holds the highest political authority.