lebah (ee Wightia) diserbuki, dan s

lebah (ee Wightia) diserbuki, dan sebagian besar angin diserbuki konifer dan Casuarinaceae sering suka berteman dan terbatas pada rangka dan podsolized tanah dataran rendah.

Biologi buah

Meskipun spesies muncul dapat menghasilkan jumlah tinggi buah pada interval jarang, ini diproduksi oleh proporsi menit dari bunga asli. Ini telah banyak dikaitkan dengan penyerbukan gagal, hujan selama berbunga, alasan fisiologis intrinsik dan predasi. Spesies tumbuhan bawah sering menghasilkan beberapa, buah yang sangat besar. Sangat sedikit kanopi atau muncul pohon dan pendaki genera utama menghasilkan buah bersayap cahaya atau biji (misalnya Koompassia, Engelhardtia di Asia Tenggara, tapi membandingkan hutan Afrika lebih musiman Barat). Tidak diketahui seberapa efektif mereka tersebar di lingkungan biasanya berangin, atau bagaimana bibit mereka, dengan sumber daya seperti makanan kecil, menjadi mapan.

Hal ini tidak diketahui sampai sejauh mana agamospermy terjadi di antara pohon-pohon hutan hujan meskipun benih beberapa dipterokarpa (Maury, 1968, 1970) dan Eugenia bertipe poliembrioni. Ini harus diperhitungkan dalam teori spesiasi.

Lebih atau kurang berat berbuah biasa terjadi setiap tahun di hutan secara keseluruhan dan ada sesekali berbuah berat tahun di mana banyak taksa lain yang buah pada interval lagi yang terlibat. Dipterokarpa terkait dengan waktu berbunga terhuyung tampaknya memiliki tarif diferensial pembangunan buah yang mengarah ke berbuah sinkron seperti (Holmes 1942; Wood, 1956; McClure, 1966; Ashton, 1969; Medway, 1972). Periodisitas tersebut harus mempertahankan daya dukung rendah predator buah, namun umum, dan dengan demikian meningkatkan proporsi benih yang bertahan hidup. Pada tingkat genetik spesialisasi biokimia dapat mempertahankan kekhususan predator-tuan tinggi dan lebih rendah predator membawa kapasitas (Janzen, 1974).

Bubaran

Banyak spesies fase dewasa memiliki tidak berarti dikenal buah penyebaran dengan buah jatuh di bawah atau dekat perimeter mahkota tua. Misalnya, buah bersayap dari dipterokarpa Asia Tenggara gyrates ke kanopi utama dan kemudian jatuh secara acak, tetapi lebih atau kurang vertikal, di bawah ini. Hal ini dapat menyebabkan penggumpalan dikumpulkan bibit dan mungkin pengulangan komposisi flora dalam waktu; dengan mendukung perkawinan sedarah sementara di antara sejumlah kecil individu berbagi usul umum, mungkin juga kondusif untuk diversifikasi ekotipe yang patut cepat (Ashton, 1969). Namun, dalam spesies s.ome, diferensial predasi telah ditemukan untuk mendukung kelangsungan hidup bibit terjauh dari orang tua (Janzen, 1970).

Banyak propagul disebarkan oleh hewan, khususnya monyet, mamalia arboreal lainnya dan burung. Buah tersebut biasanya conspicriously berwarna saat masak-biasanya merah, tapi juga hitam, putih, kuning atau biru. Mereka kebanyakan memiliki pericarps freshy, mesomrps, endocarps atau dengan arils atau arillodes, yang terakhir sering dengan pericarp pelindung kering yang dehisces untuk mengungkapkan warna-warni menarik interior (Corner, 1949, 1952, 1956). Benih sendiri sering beracun dan baik ditolak atau lulus terluka melalui usus vektor; melihat Ridley (1930), untuk account umum. Penyebaran yang lebih luas tersebut dapat dikaitkan dengan tingkat Iower spesiasi (Ashton, 1969) dan untuk mengubah pola lokal komposisi flora dari jenis hutan (misalnya Rolle t, 1974). Ini tidak berarti pergantian reguler rcpeating rekan spesies seperti yang tersirat oleh Aubrdville (1938) yang tidak ada bukti yang meyakinkan di hutan yang tidak terganggu alami.

Dormansi

Secara umum benih spesies pohon fase dewasa tidak memiliki masa dormansi, meskipun Koopman dan Verhoef (1938) menemukan, biji Eusideroxylon zwageri mempertahankan kapasitas perkecambahan yang baik selama satu tahun, Namun, ada beberapa pengecualian mencolok di Malaysia, terutama di lnisophylleo (Rhizophoraceae ) dan berbagai Leguminosae (Ng, 1973, 1974), dan beberapa biji kecil dari fase dewasa Koompassia malaccensls angin tersebar dan Dyera costulota berkecambah 56 dan 130 hari setelah tanam masing-masing (Wyatt-Smith, 1963), sementara dipterocarpaceae dormansi benih hanya bisa diperpanjang selama empat minggu dengan pengeringan atau gabungan pengeringan dan pendinginan (Tang, 1971; Tang dan Tamari, 1973); Afrika Terminalia ivore NSIS dan Triplochiton biji scleroxylon kelayakan longgar jika disimpan untuk waktu yang lama, dan dormansi 350 spesies kayu dari berbagai habitat di Pantai Gading, bervariasi dari kurang dari dua minggu untuk 3 tahun (De La Mensbruge, 1966).

Perbenihan dan pembentukan

Kematian tertinggi dalam siklus hidup terjadi antara berbunga dan pembentukan bibit dan apresiasi yang sangat penting dalam pengembangan metode yang sesuai regenerasi alami hutan Iogged (misalnya Wyatt-Smith, 1963); namun tidak diketahui apa kematian sejauh mana probabilistik bukan dialihkan ke faktor selektif tertentu. Kondisi untuk perkecambahan dan pembentukan spesies pohon fase dewasa hampir selalu sangat khusus dan ini adalah faktor utama mencegah mereka kembali setelah pembukaan hutan (G6mez-Pompa et al., 1972). Ada variasi antarspesies sering cukup besar dalam persyaratan kelembaban untuk sukses perkecambahan; ini dapat membantu untuk menjelaskan kedua pola spasial intrinsik dan ekstrinsik variasi spasial di floristics hutan. Brunck (di De La Mensbruge, 1966) menemukan bahwa biji dari okoume Afrika Barat (lacoumea klaineana) kehilangan viabilitas jika kelembaban relatif berfluktuasi lebih dari 8 persen meskipun mereka dapat disimpan selama beberapa tahun jika kedua suhu dan kelembaban diturunkan (lihat di bawah hutan musiman). Burgess (tidak dipublikasikan) mampu menunjukkan bahwa Malayan punggungan-top dominan Shorea curtisiirequired kondisi lembab untuk germinatiog daripada S. leprosulaatd, S, parvifolia di atas bukit-side. Itu lebih toleran terhadap intensitas cahaya rendah berikut pendirian, dan dengan demikian juga disesuaikan dengan regenerasi bawah tanah-cover padat dari tristis Eugeissond sawit stemless yang berlimpah di habitat yang sama dan yang menyediakan kondisi kelembaban dan cahaya di mana S. curtisii sendirian di antara congener yang dapat bertahan dan menjadi mapan. Untuk pembentukan sukses, fase dewasa Spesies di situs submesic memerlukan kondisi terus-menerus lembab; intensitas cahaya rendah tidak membatasi, memang warna biasanya wajib untuk mencegah pengeringan keluar.

Predasi merupakan faktor selektif utama. Studi telah dilakukan oleh synnott (1973) di hutan Budongo dari Uganda, di bawah kanopi hutan dewasa cynometra alexandri, entandrophragma spp. Dan khaya spp., Pada regenerasi entandrophragma utile. Di bawah simulasi alami biji-jatuh, ca. 40 persen dari biji yang dimakan oleh tikus sebelum dan setelah perkecambahan dan hampir 30 persen tewas dalam waktu 2 tahun oleh kijang browsing. Kerugian lainnya yang disebabkan oleh benih-busuk, serangga dan serangan jamur dan kekeringan. Tingkat kelangsungan hidup setelah 2 tahun dari biji-gugur adalah 2 persen. Chan (tidak dipublikasikan) recordead 83 persen aborsi di shorea ovalis Korth, mungkin karena gagal penyerbukan.; lebih dari 90 persen dari korban dibunuh oleh predator serangga tunggal sebelum jatuh, dan 16 persen dari ini menurun dengan jarak dari pohon. Predator ini tidak menjadi tuan rumah yang spesifik, tetapi dalam kasus lain mereka dan kepentingan mereka sebagai agen mempertahankan keanekaragaman ditinjau kemudian.

Tidak ada informasi komparatif tentang perkecambahan dan estebalishment dalam jenis hutan yang berbeda tersedia. Tidak ada perbedaan sifnificant dalam biologi buah tahu antara hutan yang berbeda pada rata-rata dan situs subur juga disiram. Pada subur, dan terutama xeric situs (terutama puncak punggungan dan podzols) ada peningkatan pada spesies dewasa dengan kering, pecah, kecil-unggulan, dan propagul angin-tersebar, misalnya cratoxylon, austrobuxus, ctenolophon, allantospermum, axinandra, agathis, cemara di asia selatan-timur. Ini mungkin diharapkan dari lingkungan yang sering berangin, dan memiliki kondisi cahaya pada forestfloor yang memungkinkan untuk inisiasi cepat fotosintesis.

Aspek penting tapi sakit-dipelajari lain adalah pengembangan flora rizosfer. Sekarang cukup mapan (misalnya Edmiston di Odum dan Pigeon, 1970) bahwa manv keluarga hutan hujan yang mikoriza (misalnya dipterocarpaceae, beberapa tiliaceae, Sterculiaceae dengan ectotrophic dan myrtaceace dengan vesikular arbuskula mikoriza). Hal ini juga tampak bahwa, seperti dalam zona sedang, mikoriza menjadi lebih meluas dan fisiologis penting dalam tanah subur. Mereka mungkin terbukti menjadi penentu utama komposisi jenis, bertindak pada tahap pembentukan bibit.

Produksi benih, penyebaran, dormansi dan pembentukan masalah tampak serupa untuk pendaki kayu dan pohon, namun jelas sekali berbeda untuk epifit, yang umumnya menghasilkan biji kecil, dengan sedikit makanan toko 'yang disebarkan oleh arus konveksi serta hewan

Fisiologi regenerasi pohon

Sebagai hasil tersebut yang sumber umumnya berlimpah benih dan produksi buah berat periodik, perhumid hutan hujan ditandai dengan padat meskipun bibit berfluktuasi dan sering mengelompok dan distribusi pohon muda di tanah. Ini fakta sylviculturally penting telah dibuktikan dalam hutan dipterokarpa campuran Malaysia Barat (De Leeuw, 1936; Soepono dan ardiwinata 1957; Wyatt-smith, 1963) dan juga hutan dataran rendah campuran di irian (Loekito dan Hardjono, 1965), Venezuela (Rollet, 1974), Suriname (Schulz, 1960). Trinidad (jenggot, 1946), hutan rawa campuran Sumatera (rakoen, 1955), hutan guinea araucaria baru (abu-abu, 1975) dan hutan heath Kalimantan (soebidja, 1955) pikir ini tidak berarti selalu kemudahan untuk semua spesies, dan terutama di hutan subelimax edafis didominasi oleh spesies tunggal, misalnya Hopea mengarawan Miq. Di Sumatera (thorenaer, 1924) dan meranti albida sym. Di Sarawak (Anderson, 1961). Sistem seragam Malayan regenerasi hutan dipterocarp dataran rendah bergantung pada asumsi tersebut. Namun

Hasil (Inggris) 1:

bees (ee Wightia) pollinated, and most wind pollinated conifer and Casuarinaceae is often gregarious and limited to the order and the podsolized lowland soils.The biology of fruitAlthough the species emerge can generate a high amount of fruit in the interval is rare, is produced by the proportions of the original flower. This has been widely associated with pollination fails, rain during flowering, physiological reasons intrinsic and predation. Lower plant species often produces a few, very large fruit. Very few of the canopy or emerge the major genera of trees and climbers produce light-winged fruit or seeds (eg Koompassia, Engelhardtia in Southeast Asia, but comparing the African forest more seasonal West). It is unknown how effective they are dispersed in the environment usually windy, or how their seedlings, with resources such as snacks, be established.It is not known to what extent agamospermy occurs among the trees of the rain forests although some dipterocarp seeds (Maury, 1968, 1970) and Eugenia of type poliembrioni. This should be taken into account in the theory of speciation.More or less heavily fruited plain occur every year in the forest as a whole and there are occasional heavy fruiting year where a lot of other taxa that fruit in the interval again involved. Associated with flowering time dipterocarp staggered tariff differential development seems to have fruit that led to fruitful out of sync like Holmes (1942; Wood, 1956; McClure, 1966; Ashton, 1969; Medway, 1972). The periodicity should maintain its support of low fruit predators, yet common, and thus increase the proportion of seeds survive. At the level of specialization of Biochemistry can maintain genetic specificity of high Lords of the predator and the predator carries a lower capacity (Janzen, 1974).BubaranThe adult phase of many species has by no means known fruit spread with fruit fall under or near the perimeter of the old Crown. For example, winged fruit from trees belong to South-East Asia the main canopy and gyrates to then fall at random, but more or less vertical, below. This can cause clumping collected seeds and may be a repetition of the composition of the flora in time; by supporting blood while in the marriage between a small number of individuals sharing a common origin, may also be conducive to the diversification of ekotipe should be speedy (Ashton, 1969). However, the species s. ome, differential predation has been found to support the viability of the seed the farthest from parents (Janzen, 1970).A lot of propagul dispersed by animals, especially monkeys, other arboreal mammals and birds. The fruit is usually colored when ripe-conspicriously are usually red, but also black, white, yellow or blue. They mostly have pericarps freshy, mesomrps, or with endocarps arils or arillodes, the latter often with protective pericarp dehisces dry to reveal interesting colorful interior (Corner, 1949, 1952, 1956). The seed itself is often toxic and either rejected or passed through the gut unharmed vector; see Ridley (1930), for the public accounts. The wider the spread can be associated with speciation Iower level (Ashton, 1969) and to change the composition of the local flora pattern of forest types (e.g. Rolle t, 1974). This does not mean turn regular peer rcpeating species as implied by the Aubrdville (1938) that there is no convincing evidence that in the undisturbed natural forest.DormancyIn general the adult phase of tree species seeds have no dormancy period, although Koopman and Verhoef (1938) discovered, Eusideroxylon zwageri retain seed germination capacity is good for one year, however, there are some glaring exceptions in Malaysia, especially in the lnisophylleo (Rhizophoraceae) and various other Leguminosae (Ng, 1973, 1974), and a few small seeds from mature phase Koompassia malaccensls wind dispersed and Dyera costulota germinated 56 and 130 days after planting each (Wyatt-Smith , 1963), while seed dormancy dipterocarpaceae only be extended for four weeks with a combined drying and drying or cooling (Tang, 1971; Tang and Tamari, 1973); Terminalia Africa ivore Triplochiton scleroxylon seeds and NSIS feasibility loose if stored for a long time, and 350 species of dormancy of wood from a variety of habitats in the Ivory Coast, varying from less than two weeks to 3 years (De La Mensbruge, 1966).Perbenihan and the establishment ofKematian tertinggi dalam siklus hidup terjadi antara berbunga dan pembentukan bibit dan apresiasi yang sangat penting dalam pengembangan metode yang sesuai regenerasi alami hutan Iogged (misalnya Wyatt-Smith, 1963); namun tidak diketahui apa kematian sejauh mana probabilistik bukan dialihkan ke faktor selektif tertentu. Kondisi untuk perkecambahan dan pembentukan spesies pohon fase dewasa hampir selalu sangat khusus dan ini adalah faktor utama mencegah mereka kembali setelah pembukaan hutan (G6mez-Pompa et al., 1972). Ada variasi antarspesies sering cukup besar dalam persyaratan kelembaban untuk sukses perkecambahan; ini dapat membantu untuk menjelaskan kedua pola spasial intrinsik dan ekstrinsik variasi spasial di floristics hutan. Brunck (di De La Mensbruge, 1966) menemukan bahwa biji dari okoume Afrika Barat (lacoumea klaineana) kehilangan viabilitas jika kelembaban relatif berfluktuasi lebih dari 8 persen meskipun mereka dapat disimpan selama beberapa tahun jika kedua suhu dan kelembaban diturunkan (lihat di bawah hutan musiman). Burgess (tidak dipublikasikan) mampu menunjukkan bahwa Malayan punggungan-top dominan Shorea curtisiirequired kondisi lembab untuk germinatiog daripada S. leprosulaatd, S, parvifolia di atas bukit-side. Itu lebih toleran terhadap intensitas cahaya rendah berikut pendirian, dan dengan demikian juga disesuaikan dengan regenerasi bawah tanah-cover padat dari tristis Eugeissond sawit stemless yang berlimpah di habitat yang sama dan yang menyediakan kondisi kelembaban dan cahaya di mana S. curtisii sendirian di antara congener yang dapat bertahan dan menjadi mapan. Untuk pembentukan sukses, fase dewasa Spesies di situs submesic memerlukan kondisi terus-menerus lembab; intensitas cahaya rendah tidak membatasi, memang warna biasanya wajib untuk mencegah pengeringan keluar.Predation was the primary selective factor. The study was done by synnott (1973) in the forest of Uganda's Budongo, under a canopy of mature forest cynometra alexandri, entandrophragma spp. And khaya spp., entandrophragma utile In regeneration. Under simulated natural seed fall, ca. 40 per cent of the seeds are eaten by the rats before and after germination and nearly 30 percent died within 2 years by deer browsing. Other losses caused by seed-rotting, insect and fungal attacks and droughts. The survival rate after 2 years of seed-fall is 2 percent. Chan (will not be published) recordead 83 percent of abortion in shorea ovalis Korth, probably due to failed pollination.; more than 90 percent of the victims were killed by a single insect predators before falling, and 16 percent of this decrease with distance from the tree. This Predator is not host specific, but in other cases they and their importance as an agent maintaining diversity is reviewed later.There are no comparative information about germination and estebalishment in different forest types are available. There is no difference in the biology of fruit sifnificant know between different forests on average and also watered lush site. In arid regions, and especially the xeric sites (primarily the Summit Ridge and podzols) there is an increase in adult with dry, chapped, small-seeded, propagul and wind-dispersed, e.g. cratoxylon, austrobuxus, ctenolophon, allantospermum, axinandra, agathis, Cypress in South-East asia. This might be expected from an environment that is often windy, and have light conditions on forestfloor which allows for rapid initiation of photosynthesis.An important aspect but ill-studied the development of the flora of rhizosphere. Now that is pretty well established (e.g. Edmiston in Odum and Pigeon, 1970) that the rainforest family manv mycorrhiza (e.g. dipterocarpaceae, tiliaceae, Sterculiaceae with several ectotrophic and myrtaceace with vesikular arbuskula mycorrhiza). It also appears that, as in the temperate zone, mycorrhiza are becoming more widespread and physiologically important in fertile soil. They may prove to be the main determinant of composition, the Act on establishment of seedling stage.Seed production, dispersal, dormancy and the formation of the problem seems similar to wood and tree climbers, but are clearly different for epiphyte, which generally produce smaller seeds, with a little food shops ' spread by convection currents as well as animalPhysiology of tree regenerationAs a result of these sources are generally abundant seed and fruit production, periodic onerous perhumid rain forest characterized by solid despite fluctuating and often clumped seedlings and young trees in the land distribution. This fact is important sylviculturally has been proven in a mixed dipterocarp forests of Western Malaysia (De Leeuw, 1936; Srihadi and ardiwinata 1957; Wyatt-smith, 1963) and also mixed in the lowland forests of New Guinea (Loekito and Hardjono, 1965), Venezuela (Rollet, 1974), Suriname (Schulz, 1960). Trinidad (beard, 1946) mixed swamp forest, Sumatra (rakoen, 1955), araucaria forest guinea new (gray, 1975) and heath forests of Borneo (soebidja, 1955) thought this was by no means always easy to all species, and particularly in the subelimax edafis is dominated by a single species, e.g. Hopea mengarawan Miq. In Sumatra (thorenaer, 1924) and meranti albida sym. In Sarawak (Anderson, 1961). Uniform system of dipterocarp forest regeneration Malayan lowlands are dependent on that assumption. However

Hasil (Inggris) 2:

bee (ee Wightia) pollinated, and mostly wind pollinated conifers and casuarinaceae often gregarious and limited to the order and podsolized lowlands. Biology fruit Although the species appears can produce high amounts of fruit at rare intervals, is manufactured by minute proportion of native flowers , It has been widely attributed to pollination failure, rain during flowering, intrinsic physiological reasons and predation. Under plant species often produces few, very large fruit. Very little canopy or appear main genera of trees and climbers generate light winged fruit or seeds (eg Koompassia, Engelhardtia in Southeast Asia, but compares more seasonal forests of West Africa). It is unknown how effective they are dispersed in the environment usually windy, or how their seeds, with resources such as snacks, be established. It is not known to what extent agamospermy occurs between rainforest trees despite several dipterocarp seed (Maury, 1968 , 1970) and Eugenia poliembrioni type. This should be taken into account in the theory of speciation. More or less the usual heavy fruiting occurs every year in the forest as a whole and there are occasional heavy fruiting year in which many other taxa fruit at longer intervals involved. Dipterocarp associated with staggered flowering time seems to have differential rates of development that leads to fruitful fruit such as synchronous (Holmes, 1942; Wood, 1956; McClure, 1966; Ashton, 1969; Medway, 1972). The periodicity should maintain a low bearing capacity predators fruit, but common, and thus increase the proportion of seeds that survive. At the genetic level biochemical specialization can maintain predator-host specificity and lower high carrying capacity predators (Janzen, 1974). dispersal Many species adult stage has no means known fruit spread of the fruit falls under or near the perimeter of the old crown. For example, winged fruit from Southeast Asia Dipterocarp gyrates to the main canopy and then fall at random, but more or less vertical, below. This can lead to clumping collected seeds and perhaps repetition flora composition in time; with inbreeding temporary support among a small number of individuals sharing a common origin, may also be conducive to the diversification of ecotypic fast (Ashton, 1969). However, in s.ome species, predation differential has been found to support the survival of seedlings furthest from parents (Janzen, 1970). Many propagules spread by animals, especially monkeys, other arboreal mammals and birds. The fruit is usually conspicriously color-typically red when ripe, but also black, white, yellow or blue. They mostly have pericarps freshy, mesomrps, endocarps or with arils or arillodes, the latter often with a dry protective pericarp dehisces to reveal interesting colorful interior (Corner, 1949, 1952, 1956). The seeds themselves are often toxic and either rejected or wounded pass through the gut vector; see Ridley (1930), for the general account. Wider deployment can be attributed to the level Iower speciation (Ashton, 1969) and to change patterns of local flora composition of forest types (eg t Rolle, 1974). This does not mean the regular turnover rcpeating fellow species as implied by Aubrdville (1938) that there was no convincing evidence in undisturbed forest naturally. Dormancy In general seeds mature phase of tree species do not have a dormancy period, although Koopman and Verhoef (1938) found , seeds Eusideroxylon zwageri maintain good germination capacity for one year, however, there are some striking exceptions in Malaysia, especially in lnisophylleo (Rhizophoraceae) and various Leguminosae (Ng, 1973, 1974), and a few small seeds from mature phase Koompassia scattered wind malaccensls and Dyera costulota germinate 56 and 130 days after planting respectively (Wyatt-Smith, 1963), while dipterocarp seed dormancy could only be extended for four weeks with a combination of drying or drying and cooling (Tang, 1971; Tang and Tamari, 1973); Africa Terminalia ivore NSIS and Triplochiton scleroxylon seed loose viability if stored for a long time, and dormancy 350 wood species from different habitats in Ivory Coast, varying from less than two weeks to 3 years (De La Mensbruge, 1966). Germination and formation of Death the highest in the life cycle occurs between flowering and seed formation and appreciation is very important in the development of suitable methods of natural regeneration of forest Iogged (eg, Wyatt-Smith, 1963); but it is not known what the extent of the probabilistic death is not diverted to certain selective factors. Conditions for germination and establishment of tree species adult stage are almost always very special and this is the main factor preventing them from returning after the clearing (G6mez-Pump et al., 1972). There are often quite large interspecies variation in moisture requirements for successful germination; This may help to explain both the intrinsic and extrinsic spatial patterns of spatial variation in forest floristics. Brunck (in De La Mensbruge, 1966) found that the seeds of the West African okoume (lacoumea klaineana) lose viability if the relative humidity fluctuates more than 8 percent even though they can be stored for several years when both the temperature and the humidity lowered (see below seasonal forest) , Burgess (not published) were able to show that the Malayan dominant ridge-top Shorea curtisiirequired humid conditions for germinatiog than S. leprosulaatd, S, parvifolia on the hill-side. It is more tolerant of low light intensity following the establishment, and thus well adapted to underground regeneration of the solid cover tristis Eugeissond stemless palm abundant in the same habitat and that provide moisture and light conditions in which S. curtisii alone among congener can survive and become established. For successful establishment, mature phase species at the site submesic need constantly moist conditions; low light intensity is not the limit, it is the color usually required to prevent drying out. Predation is a major selective factor. Studies have been carried out by synnott (1973) in the Budongo Forest of Uganda, under a canopy of mature forest cynometra alexandri, entandrophragma spp. And khaya spp., On entandrophragma regeneration utile. Under simulated natural grains fell, ca. 40 percent of the seeds are eaten by mice before and after germination and nearly 30 percent died within 2 years by deer browsing. Other losses caused by seed-rot, insect and fungi attacks and drought. The survival rate after two years of seed-fall is 2 percent. Chan (unpublished) recordead 83 percent of abortions in Shorea ovalis Korth, perhaps because it failed pollination .; more than 90 percent of the victims were killed by a single insect predators before falling, and 16 percent of this decrease with distance from the tree. Predator is not a specific host, but in other cases they and their importance as agents maintain diversity be reviewed later. There is no comparative information about the germination and estebalishment in different forest types are available. No differences in the biology of fruit sifnificant out between different forest at an average of well watered and fertile sites. On fertile, and especially xeric sites (especially the peak ridge and podzols) there is an increase in adult species with dry, cracked, small-seed, and propagules wind-dispersed, for example cratoxylon, austrobuxus, ctenolophon, allantospermum, axinandra, agathis, fir in asia south-east. It might be expected of an environment that is often windy, and has a light on forestfloor conditions that allow for the rapid initiation of photosynthesis. The important aspect but the other is ill-studied flora development rhizosphere. Now fairly well established (eg, Edmiston in Odum and Pigeon, 1970) that the family manv rainforest mycorrhizal (eg dipterocarp, some tiliaceae, Sterculiaceae with ectotrophic and myrtaceace with vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae). It also appears that, as in the temperate zone, mycorrhizal become more widespread and physiologically important in fertile soil. They may prove to be a major determinant of species composition, acting on the stage of the formation of seeds. Seed production, dissemination, dormancy and formation problems seem similar to wood and tree climbers, but obviously different for epiphytes, which generally produces small seeds, with little food store ' which is spread by convection currents and animal physiology tree regeneration As these results are generally abundant source of seed and fruit production of periodic heavy, perhumid characterized by dense rain forest despite fluctuating and often clumped seedlings and young trees on land distribution. This fact is important sylviculturally has been demonstrated in mixed dipterocarp forest of West Malaysia (De Leeuw, 1936; Soepono and ardiwinata 1957; Wyatt-Smith, 1963) and also a mixture of lowland forest in Irian (Loekito and Hardjono, 1965), Venezuela (Rollet, 1974 ), Suriname (Schulz, 1960). Trinidad (Beard, 1946), mixed swamp forests of Sumatra (rakoen, 1955), forest guinea new araucaria (Gray, 1975) and heath forests of Borneo (soebidja, 1955) think this is by no means always the ease for all species, and especially in subelimax edaphic forests are dominated by a single species, for example Hopea mengarawan Miq. In Sumatra (thorenaer, 1924) and meranti albida sym. In Sarawak (Anderson, 1961). Malayan uniform system of lowland dipterocarp forest regeneration relies on this assumption. Yet